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Howdy folks. Welcome to my website, which is intended to provide a feast of fascinating information for the serious thinker.
My name is JULIAN HANCOCK, and I live in Sydney, Australia. Feedback on any of the articles on this website is strongly encouraged, as is contribution of original material.
Read, learn, enjoy, and talk to me.
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UPDATED DAILY -- THE LATEST RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY NEWS FROM AROUND THE WORLD
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BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS
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By JULIAN HANCOCK
While we are all too familiar with the phrase; "East is East and West is West, and never the twain shall meet," [actually taken out of context from a poem by Rudyard Kipling] perhaps someone can explain to me how it was that at the same time historically (about 500 B.C.) Aristotle in Greece espoused the doctrine of avoiding extemes; The Buddha in India taught "The Middle Way" and Confucius in China outlined: "The Doctrine of the Mean."?
That great psychologist Carl Jung had an answer for this phenomenon in his theory of Universal Archetypes. And perhaps he just hit the nail on the head. After extensive world-wide travel, Jung arrived at the conclusive opinion that ALL cultures, no matter how primitive (by Western standards) had at the core of their belief systems the same universal symbolism. What all the world's major religions do have in common is a set of ethics which do not vary significantly from religion to religion.
It is not accurate to divide religions into the two groups of "Eastern" and "Western." In fact there are no truly Western religions, as Christianity, Judaim and Islam: which all share a common God, and have evolved from a common stream, are actually of course Middle Eastern. I don't know what is the geographical dividing line between East and West, but I think that I can comfortably class Hinduism, Buddhism and Taoism as originating in the Eastern hemisphere. All religions have Holy Books, which are normally regarded by their followers as being divinely inspired, and absolutely true. The first five books of the Hebrew Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy are referred to as the Pentateuch or Torah. Jewish Law is based primarly on these five books, and the Talmud, which derives largely from orally transmitted teachings.
The Christian Bible comprises the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) and the New Testament. The Old Testament is integral to Christian doctrine largely because it is the source of the Messianic prophecies believed to have been largely fulfilled by Jesus of Nazareth. Those prophecies which were not fulfilled in the short reign of Jesus in about 30 AD are delegated to the realm of Eschatology, or the Second Coming of Christ and the final fulfilment of God's promises. The Prophet Mohammed, founder of Islam, acknowledged the divine inspiration of the Hebrew/Christian Scriptures, but produced another Holy Book, the Koran (Quran). While the Jews called their God Yaweh or Jehovah, and the Christians referred to the same God as the Heavenly Father, Mohammud declared that there was only one true all encompasing God, Allah. However I can find no evidence that these variously termed Gods are anything other than one and the same.
The Middle East has certainly been the spawning ground for many religions as two others, one ancient and one modern, had their roots in Persia, now called Iran. During the 7th and 6th centuries BC the ancient polytheistic religion of the Iranians was reformed and given new dimensions by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra). Conquest by the Muslims in the 7th century AD marked the beginning of a steady decline of Zoroastrianism. Persecution resulted in the migration (in about the 10th Century) of the majority of Zorastrians to India, where the Parsis of Bombay are their modern descendants. The religion of ancient Iran was derived from that of the ancient Indo-Europeans, or Aryans. The language of the earliest Zoroastrian writings is close to that of the Indian Vedas, and much of the mythology is recognizably the same.
But the mythology of Zoroastrianism sets its beginnings far back into the mists of time, possibly making it the oldest religion still extant in the world today. In contrast to this is the birth of the Baha'i faith, also originating in Persia, but in the 19th century by the Prophet Bahaullah. It is an all-encompassing faith, declaring that all religions are part of a gradually unfolding revelation. There are estimated to be about 2 million followers worldwide. Since the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979, the discrimination to which Baha'is have always been subjected in the country of their origin has escalated into outright persecution.
RELIGIONS OF THE EAST
Having flittered all too lightly over the Western/Middle Eastern religions, I will now move on to Eastern religions/philosophies. This is rather a difficult task, in comparing them to those of the Middle East, as only Hinduism can properly be classified as a religion, in that it has a God and gods. There is no reference to any God or gods in Buddhism: the ancient Chinese faith of Taoism likewise is lacking a God, and Confucianism is simply not a religion in any sense. When the atheistic communists conquered China, Confucianism was particularly targeted as it represents a teaching involving a social class system: obviously an anathema to the (in theory) classless Marxist social order which Mao Tse Tung imposed on the peoples of China. Neither Buddhism nor Taoism ... which had lived comfortably side by side in China for many centuries ... posed this same threat to the Marxist ideal as the first was fundamentally a system of ethics, while the second could be relegated to the realm of mysticism. Christianity was of course banned as it was unquestionably a religion with a God, and hence quite incompatible with the official State philosophy of atheism.
A VERY BROAD OVERVIEW OF HINDUISM
As mentioned in the section on Zoroastrianism, Hinduism apparently originated from the same source, namely the ancient Aryans who migrated from the north east into India. Until I can get hold of some recent figures (very difficult) I will merely state that Hinduism has one of the largest number of adherents of the major religions in the world today. Christianity, in all its forms, no doubt has more followers, whilst Islam and Buddhism also rank amongst the top five. Whilst there is a complex mythology associated with Hinduism, with the various gods indulging in human-like activities (in a similar manner to Greek mythology), at its very core it contains a profoundly deep philosophy, with a comparatively uncomplicated set of doctrines.
Fundamentally it is monotheistic, with one supreme God, Brahma, who is both the creator of the universe and personification of the Absolute. As is the case in Christianity, he is part of a trinity (Trimurti) along with Vishnu and Shiva. However, at this point there is a vast gap between Christian and Hindu doctrine. While Christianity asserts that God the Father stands outside His creation, Hinduism asserts that Brahma created the universe out of Himself. This concept is known as Pantheism. Hence Hindus regard all things in the manifested universe as sacred, because they are all part of, and contain the essence of, Brahma.
Another doctrine that very markedly separates Hinduism from Christianity and the other religions originating in the Middle East, is reincarnation, which is central to its belief system. While Christians and Moslems believe that we each have a once-only chance to qualify for heaven or hell, in Hinduism (as also in Buddhism) each soul, after death, is reincarnated in the form and circumstances appropriate to its most recent life on earth. This includes the possibility of being reincarnated as a lower life form (animal). The vile caste system of Hinduism, which is now officially outlawed, is derived from a perversion of the doctrine of reincarnation.
However, while I am advised by my Hindu friends that the caste system is no longer practised in the major cities of India, it is still followed in the villages, and by emigrants to other countries. I myself have encountered blatant instances of the caste system still being observed rigidly by Hindus in Australia. Hindu doctrine incorporates a number of systems of Yoga (meaning yoke) which, if studiously followed, will lead the aspirant to freedom from the bondage of the flesh. These include Raja, Ghnani, Bhakti and Karma yoga, which represent respectively: Concentration; Wisdom; Devotion; and Selfless Work. I would like to mention at this point that Buddhism, in a very real sense, represents an amalgamation of these basic paths to Freedom or Enlightenment. Any one, or any combination of these (and certain other) practices of Yoga will lead the aspirant to the same goal of freedom.
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The Thinker, by Auguste Rodin, is depicted as a man in sober meditation battling with a powerful internal struggle. The unique pose with hand to the chin, right elbow to the left knee, and crouching position allows the statue to survey the work with a contemplative feel.
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INDEPENDENT THINKING
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By JULIAN HANCOCK
[Photo shows Albert Schweitzer -- A True, Independent Thinker]
Forty years of study in the field of comparative religions have led me to the conclusion that one of the most symbolically precise sections of the Hebrew/Christian scriptures is the account of "The Fall of Man" in the first chapter of the Bible. (Genesis 2: 15 - 17, and Genesis 3: 1 - 23). "Heaven knows" the sources of the various documents in the Old Testament: they are probably varied and numerous. There are incongruities in the text as early as Genesis Chapters one and two: Gen 1: 26 ... Then God said, "Let US (plural) make man in OUR image, in OUR likeness." Then in the following verse ... So God created man in HIS (singular) own image, in the the image of God he created him. So already we don't know whether God is one or many.
But let's move on to the tale of man's fall from grace, on which rests the nucleus of Christian doctrine, for without it there would have been no need for the ultimate sacrifice of Jesus the Christ. And so we move on to Genesis 2: 16 - 17 ... And the Lord God commanded the man, "You are free to eat from any tree in the garden (of Eden); but you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and eveil, for when you eat of it you will surely die." (No further reference is made to "the tree of life," mentioned earlier in Genesis 2:9). Well, as we know, the crafty serpent advised the woman, regarding eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, "You will surely not die ... for God knows that when you eat of it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil."
We don't know what the serpent represents in this context. Commonly in mythology the serpent represents intelligence. In Chinese astrology one of the principle attributes of a person born in a Year of the Snake is deep and profound thought. Even the Bible states: "Now the serpent was more crafty than any of the wild animals the Lord God had made." (Gen 3:1) There is no suggestion that the serpent in the Garden of Eden was Satan, whose first mention in the Bible does not occur until 12 books further on, in I Chronicles. So I will settle for the probability that the serpent in the Genesis account was somehow and to a greater or lesser degree, a symbolic reference to intelligence.
Why then is intelligence given credit for the fall of mankind from grace? I think the obvious reason is that, if independent thinking had not become an element in the equasion, Adam and Eve would never have become truly human. They would have lived on as automatons, blindly and choicelessly following the will of God. But Eve, followed by Adam, chose to make a personal choice and eat of the forbidden fruit. In Genesis 3: 14 - 18, the angry God hands down his harsh and cruel judgement firstly on the serpent (verses 14 - 15); the woman (not yet named Eve) (verse 16); and to Adam and the earth itself: "It will produce thorns and thistles" (verses 17 - 20).
Well, as we too well know, the whole of Christine doctrine hangs on the so-called abuse of the gift of free will. But an in-depth discussion on the subject of Free Will belongs more appropriately in the section of this website titled "Philosophy." But I will give the subject matter of Genesis chapters 1 - 3 a rest for now, having hopefully sown in your minds the suggestion that without using independent thought, leading to the awareness of good and evil (philosophically "duality") the human race as we know it would never have come into existence.
FAMOUS CHRISTIANS WHO THOUGHT INDEPENDENTLY
All too frequently over the centuries Christian philosophers and theologians have taken the role of apologists. That is, they have sought to make the Scriptures fit the established dogma, rather than to study the Bible objectively. Two outstanding examples of Christian philosopher/theologians who have not followed this pattern are Albert Schweitzer and Soren Kierkegaard. Most people know of Schweitzer only in his role as the Jungle Doctor. But there was so much more to his life and accomplishments than the periods spent in Africa. As for Kierkegaard, few people other than students of philosophy have even heard of him, yet he is attributed as being the founder of Existentialism ... a landmark step in the evolution of Western philosophy.
ALBERT SCHWEITZER (1875-1965)
Many people whom I speak to have never heard of Albert Schweitzer. Of the remainder, most know of him only in his role as the "Jungle Doctor." Musicians are well aware of his achievements as an organist and, in collaboration with his teacher Charles Marie WIDOR, an author of books about the life and music of Johan Sebastian Bach. He also edited and collated some of Bach's compositions, and set specifications for the design of organs which become the standard throughout Europe.
He obtained doctorates in Theology, Philosophy and Medicine, and published a number of books on theology and philosophy. However, his particular relevance to the subject matter of this article is that, following on from the work of several German theologians, he published in 1906 "The Quest For The Historical Jesus." Perhaps for the first time in history, a practising Christian dared to step outside Church dogma and analyse the role and nature of Jesus objectively.
I will let his findings speak for themselves through the following extracts from his book:
"Jesus Himself in the first period of His public ministry, up to Mark VIII, had never designated Himself as the Messiah, for the expression Son of Man carried no Messianic associations for the multitude. His fundamental thought was that of perfect communion with God; only little by little, as the success of the preaching of the Kingdom more and more impressed His mind, did His consciousness take on a Messianic colouring. By His interpretation in Mark XII 35-37, He makes known that the Messiah has nothing whatever to do with the Davidic kingship.
"It was only with difficulty that He came to resolve to accept the title of Messiah; He knew what a weight of national prejudices and national hopes hung upon it. "But He is 'Messiah the Son of Man;' He created this expression in order thereby to make known His lowliness. In the moment in which He accepted this office he registered the resolve to suffer. His purpose is, to be the suffering, not the triumphant Messiah. It is to the influence which His Passion exercises upon the souls of men that He looks for the firm establishment of His Kingdom.
"The Jesus of Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, who preached the ethic of the Kingdom of God, who founded the Kingdom of Heaven upon earth, and died to give His work its final consecration, never had any existence. He is a figure designed by rationalism, endowed with life by liberalism, and clothed by modern theology in an historical garb.
"Jesus as a concrete historical personality remains a stranger in our time, but His spirit, which lies hiddden in His words, is known in simplicity, and its influence is direct. Jesus means something to our world bcause a mighty spiritual force streams from Him and flows through our time also.
"This fact can neither be shaken or confirmed by any historical discovery. It is the solid foundation of Christianity. "He comes to us as One unknown, without a name, as of old, by the lakeside. He came to those men who knew Him not. He speaks to us the same word: "Follow thou me!" and sets us to the tasks which He has to fulfil for our time. He commands. And to those who obey Him, whether they be wise or simple, He will reveal Himself in the toils, the conflicts, the sufferings which they shall pass through in His fellowship, and as an ineffable mystery, they shall learn in their own experience Who He is."
And so the great Dr Schweitzer, while rejecting the orthodox interpretation of the life and mission of Jesus, continued to draw strength from the Spirit that flowed through Jesus. When, following already exceptional achievements as a theologian, academic and organist, Schweitzer decided it was time to repay some of the blessings he had received in his life by becoming a mission doctor in Africa, he was accepted by the Parisian Missionary Society on the grounds that he did not preach his "heretical" views to the natives, and that he would have to fund his own Christian work. Because his questioning of the traditional doctrines about Jesus in no way weakened his faith in the Spirit of Jesus, he lived the greater portion of his life in selfless administration to the sick in French Equatorial Africa.
[The above brief discussion of the life and ideas of Albert Schweitzer in no measure do justice to the extraordinary achievements, greatness and humility of this man whose INDEPENDENT THINKING only strengthened his resolve to follow in the footsteps of his Master.]
SOREN KIERKEGAARD (1813-1855)
Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher and religious thinker whose reaction against the depersonalisation of society and against the established chuch of Denmark, took the form of brilliant literary and philosophical essays. [He studied Philosophy and Theology at the University of Copenhagen, receiving a Master's degree in 1840]. He is regarded by philosophers today as a precursor of Existentialism, although not all existentialists are directly influenced by him. For Kierkegaard, the highest level of human life consists of recognising the need for religion as a subjective commitment to truth, as opposed to the Hegelian philosophy of pure truth. Kierkegaard attacked what he considered to be the sterile metaphysics of G.W.F. Hegel, who attempted to systematize the whole of existence and create an objective theory of knowledge.
Soren Kierkegaard's often repeated statement: "Truth is subjectivity," should not be understood in the sense of a shallow individualism. Rather, it links truth with the subject instead of with its object, making the real communication of truth to other subjects impossible. Kierkegaard drew the only logical conclusion from this principle -- that it is impossible to establish an objective system of doctrinal truths. A couple of references from the words of Jesus also suggest that truth can only be revealed on an individual basis. See John 8:47 "He that is of God heareth God's words: ye therefore hear them not, because ye are not of God." and perhaps more specifically in John 14:26 "But the Comforter, which is the Holy Ghost, whom the Father will send in my name, he shall teach you all things, and bring all things to your remembrance, whatsoever I have said unto you." Kiekegaard deliberately did not set out an overall system of beliefs, as he insisted that the individual was the repository of truth. In fact, he requested as his own epitaph the designation "That Individual."
[Acknowledgement: My thanks to GROLIER ENCYCLOPEDIA, CD-ROM version, for much of the above information about Schweitzer and Kierkegaard].
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